Raphael's Transfiguratiaon

Raphael’s Transfiguration is considered to be one of the most complex paintings to come out of the Renaissance period. Shortly after its completion it was named to be Raphael’s masterpiece and was considered to be the world’s greatest painting for many generations or artists and connoisseurs.

The Transfiguration dates back to 1516 or early 1517 when the Cardinal Guilio de' Medici, the future Clement VII, commissioned it as an altarpiece for the seat of his new bishopric, the cathedral of St-Juste in Narbonne. However, he put Raphael under pressure by pinning him up against Sebastiano del Piombo, the protégé of Michelangelo, Raphael’s rival, who was creating a companion piece called The Raising of Lazarus. Despite the pressure Raphael managed to create the complex and beautiful Transfiguration, which was ultimately deemed too good for the Narbonne (Kleinhub: 370).

The painting itself depicts two Gospel episodes. The upper half of the painting shows the transfiguration itself on top of Mount Tabor which is depicted in Matthew 17:1-9, Mark 9:1-8, and Luke 9:28-36. Raphael depicts Jesus as elevated and disproportionately larger than the other figures. Moses and Elias, the prophets, are floating alongside Jesus while Peter, James and John are cowering on the mountaintop and shielding their faces. Jesus is looking upwards which suggests that there is something greater than him which he is looking to. On the left there are two men kneeling and looking on the scene. These are said to be Justus and Pastor, martyred patron saints of Narbonne.

The lower half of the painting is said to be a depiction of the episode of the nine apostles, who did not climb Mount Tabor with Jesus, who could not heal a possessed boy. This episode is described in Matthew 17:14-21, Mark 9:14-29 and Luke 9:37-45. When Jesus descends from the Mountain he heals the boy and when the apostles ask why they could not heal them, he tells them it is because they have little faith. This message seems to be what connects the upper half of the image and the lower half of the image.

Even though the two scenes share the same setting in the Gospels, they are depicted by Raphael as being entirely separate entities, but in one image. None of the individuals in the lower half of the image acknowledge the figures above and none of the figures above acknowledge the images below. Many were confused why Raphael would choose to depict these two scenes in this way. But Johann Wolfgang von Goethe felt that the two halves were meant to be complementary (Kleinhub: 372). The upper half is supposed to be the “invisible” and active power that succeeds us all, while the lower half was meant to show the suffering that occurs in the human world, what is “visible.” After Goethe, most other scholars also interpreted the image in this way.

The shadow that runs through the image is believed to be the key factor in Transfiguration. It separates Jesus, the two prophets and the three apostles from the scene of the demonic boy and the apostles below. Nobody in the bottom half of the image seems to be able to see, or even acknowledges the upper half of the image. The only connection between the two is made by the apostle in the lower left hand side in the red cloak (Kleinhub: 374). He has his eyes shut, his hand across his chest and he is pointing through the shadowy barrier towards Jesus. This symbolizes access to the “invisible” and to Jesus. This gesture also symbolizes that a connection can only be made to God through internal beliefs and visions. This is where the message of having little faith connects the two halves. The apostles that surround the apostle in the red cloak also seem to show signs of inward connections to the upper half of the image. The blond apostle standing next to the apostle in the red cloak is indicating to the woman on the other side of the image that the visions come from the heart, not from the eyes. This demonstrates that faith comes from within and cannot be found in the physical, external world.

The figures on the left hand side of the image seem to be amazed and at peace, while their counterparts on the right hand of the image seem furiously wild and upset. This opposition is demonstrated by another shadow that divides the groups. The figures on the right are believed to depict the external vision of the world and have little faith. They do not understand looking to Jesus from within themselves and they are looking to external, physical sources to help them draw the demon from the child. But there are exceptions on both sides of the lower half. Some of the apostles on the left are showing signs of external faith, while some on the right are showing signs of internal understanding.

The boy himself seems to symbolize the dichotomy between the upper and lower images. His right arm is being pulled upwards while his lower arm seems to be pulled downwards. This is believed to be an indication that the boy is suffering from more than internal pain and that he also displays an inner turmoil (Kleinhub: 378).

Raphael’s Transfiguration is an extremely complex and though provoking piece. At first glance, one might not understand what Raphael was trying to say. But after further evaluation the pieces of the work come together to form a beautiful and incredibly deep piece of artistic genius.

By: Elizabeth Jensen
Sources:
"Raphaels Transfiguration as Visio-Devotional Program" by Christian K. Kleinbub
ARTStor

Spirit is Gentle like a Still, Small Voice that Whispers “Wake Up”

Equality is known as the state of being equal, however as it is well known there is a lot of controversy about equality between races and between sexes. Becki Jayne Harrelson has been challenging mainstream religious beliefs with her artwork for over a decade. Her main emphasis is based on the issues between politics and religion, including gay marriage, racial equality and equality between men and women. These topics by many religions are seen as controversial and those religions defend for or against them depending on the way they view the context of the bible. Becki Jayne is a very liberal artist who likes to portray a left-wing based opinion in her paintings with the hope that she will reach out to the religious community in a way that demonstrates what she sees as truth in the bible. The painting that I have chosen is called, “The Resurrection.” It portrays Jesus at his resurrection being awakened by Mary his mother. The controversial points of this portrait are Jesus as a black man and Mary as a white woman, the area around Mary is white and it is darker around Jesus as if Mary is being resurrected or is an angel, and how it conflicts with the way that the resurrection is portrayed in the bible.

In this portrait Jesus is portrayed as a black man and Mary as a white woman. This can be controversial because if Mary is white, why is her child black? Also, Jesus must have been white because when there is discussion of slavery in the bible, Jesus is not categorized with the slaves right? Becki Jayne is trying to throw the audience for a loop with this painting. She is a strong advocate for equality between the different races and takes two of the most important people in the story of Jesus and changes their race from what we are used to in mainstream Christianity. Becki Jayne takes it further and paints the more important of the two figures (Jesus) the black one, the one who in the past has been suppressed as if the black person had to be greater than the white person in order to make the races completely equal. Mary is also pulling Jesus up from the ground as if he must follow her way to get to the “light” of the world, which is also another parallel between the ways whites are viewed in our society, the leaders. Becky Jayne wanted to portray equality and how we are moving towards a balanced life in the world. Her wish is that there would be equality between the races and that equality will come from the love of God. She is saying blacks are capable of being powerful people and whites are capable of embracing them and we are better at moving to the love of Christ together.

The difference between man and woman is the main point of this picture and that we have in the past always known that the man is the head of the house and the wife is to be submissive to him from a bible-based view. “²²Wives submit to your husbands as to the Lord. ²³For the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church, his body, of which he is the Savior. ²⁴Now as the church submits to Christ, so also wives should submit to their husbands in everything” (Ephesians 5:22-24 NLT). Biblically speaking this is what a Christian is more than likely taught, submit to your husband, let him control all things. Therefore to see Mary the mother of Jesus painted into such a large event, nonetheless waking Jesus up and having him follow her to his resurrection which is the most important part of Jesus’ life in controversial. A woman, Mary, is leading a man, Jesus, to something greater than any of us could ever explain, heaven. There is another form of equality going on with the feature of the man and the woman. The man has always been the power house and the women have never had a say, but Becki Jayne wants to portray that times are finally changing. She says, “In this way, the feminine aspect of God in joint leadership with diving masculinity brings the Christ consciousness back into the physical world” (BeckiJayne.com). She is saying there has to be a mix of equality between men and woman in order to be the best to our ability as a world. When Christ is unconscious he is in the darkness, as he sits up he is moving toward the light, the light of the woman who is divine and the loving and guiding light in Jesus’ life. Becki Jayne wants this to be the future, this is her view. Regardless of the fact that churches are dividing because of the very issues of women involvement, African American involvement and having men and woman exactly equal, Becki Jayne wants this to be the way that the world moves forward. That is her wish, that there is equality for every type of “crucified” group that has ever struggled for equality. She paints about a lot of subjective debates in the bible where they are seen to be open to interpretation, but this is the view that she believes God want us to portray. Through her art she acts as an activist for equality of humans, but also as an activist for God.

The resurrection in the bible is portrayed as this, “When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought spices so that they might go to anoint Jesus' body. Very early on the first day of the week, just after sunrise, they were on their way to the tomb and they asked each other, "Who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb?" But when they looked up, they saw that the stone, which was very large, had been rolled away. As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side, and they were alarmed” (Mark 16: 1-5). In this painting, Mary is there as if she is waking Jesus up from his death and it conflicts with the story of the bible. There was no way for the physical body of Mary to actually get into the tomb to wake Jesus up from his death, but I think Becki Jayne is trying to make a biblical interpretation. The way that you could make this painting not conflict with the scripture is by making Mary the mother of Jesus be the Holy Spirit and then would have the Holy Spirit be what Jesus is depending upon and what leads him to his resurrection.

Through Becki Jayne’s paintings she is anticipating the future for humans, as we are moving to a more balanced equality in our different backgrounds and cultures. She wants to portray change in society through her art by tackling all of the things that are hush-hush in many Christian religions. Many denominations do not want to even acknowledge the fact that gay-marriage is happening and women are rising up the corporate ladder. She depicts the issues that can be debated on the issue because of the context in the bible, which are all the politically controversial parts of scripture. Some critics of her artwork have deemed her to be sacrilegious or blasphemous with the way she is taking a stand again organized religion, but she feels it is in a way that Jesus was as well when he blasted away the stereotypes of his day. With her art Becki Jayne wants to spark something in people’s minds that will hit them down deep and them bring them to change their view in their outwardly lives. She states that “humanity is undergoing a philosophical transformation, what some would call a spiritual war” (beckijayne.com). There has to be a change that takes place and motivates everyone to go toward the views of equality of race, marriage and sex and she wants to implement it. Becki Jayne also believes that “through love, new life begins. Every day, we are resurrected to live our dreams and individual expressions by an everlasting love that gives us the courage to fulfill our life’s purpose” (beckijayne.com). Becki Jayne does have that point right, when you are inspired you have the spirit of God in you, and as Becki Jayne is definitely inspired in her art and wants to inspire the viewers to look deeper than just the surface of her paintings, they are not just about race, homosexual marriage and equality, but love, empathy for others and will hopefully lead to a resurrection on earth.

Works Cited

Artist Becki Jayne fine art home page. Web. 22 Feb. 2010. .

"The Resurrection oil painting." Artist Becki Jayne fine art home page. Web. 22 Feb. 2010.

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The Tribute Money by Masaccio

The Renaissance is a widely recognized period in art history, and many artists from this time used stories and themes from the New Testament as inspiration for their work. A closer look at The Tribute Money, a fresco, by the Italian Renaissance painter known as Masaccio reveals how one specific artist interpreted a story from the Gospel of Matthew. By painting the scene in non-sequential order, Masaccio challenges both the viewer’s way of understanding artwork and knowledge of Matthew’s story of the tribute money.

Part of a cycle on the apostle Peter, Masaccio painted The Tribute Money in the Brancacci Chapel in the Santa Maria del Carmine cathedral. It was completed in the 1420s to reflect a scene in Matthew where Jesus and the disciples come to the town of Capernaum. There, they are asked by a tax collector to pay tribute money to the government. The tax collector asks Peter for the money, and the apostle questions Jesus about what to do. Jesus’ response forms the basis of the scenes in the painting:

“’From whom do kings of the earth take toll or tribute? From their children or from others? When Peter said, ‘From others,’ Jesus said to him, ‘Then the children are free. However, so that we do not give offense to them, go to the sea and cast a hook; take the first fish that comes up; and when you open its mouth, you will find a coin; take that and give it to them for you and me.’” Matthew 17: 25-27

The fresco depicts this story in three parts. The center scene shows Jesus, in a pink tunic draped with a blue cloak, directing Peter, who is standing next to him in a blue tunic draped with an orange cloak. Jesus points to the left, in the direction of the sea. The scene on the left shows Peter taking the money out of the fish’s mouth. On the opposite, right-hand, corner of the painting, we see Peter handing over the money to the tax collector.

Masaccio’s technique is to show these three separate moments in the same image. This is known as a continuous narrative, and it’s not immediately apparent to the viewer because Masaccio also incorporated the use of one-point perspective in this fresco. What this means is that all of the lines in the painting come to one central point, which, in this case, is the top of Jesus’ head. Our eyes are drawn to the figure of Jesus before we can see that action is taking place in other parts of the painting.

Another significant choice the artist made was to portray the tax collector in clothing that differs from the rest of the figures in the artwork. We can pick out the tax collector because he is wearing a bright orange tunic, but another clue is that his clothing is much shorter than what Jesus and the apostles are wearing.

It also seems that Peter’s clothing is slightly different in the scene on the left than the rest of the painting. Some interpretations say that Peter is shown as a vibrant figure when he is with Jesus, but he is dull and diminutive by himself to highlight his connection with Jesus. It may signify that Peter will spread Jesus’ message on earth.

Due to complications in the restoration of The Tribute Money, it’s difficult to decipher which of the figures around Jesus represent specific disciples. The muddy colors and elements that have worn on the painting over time have left scholars unsure. It is believed, though, that John stands opposite from Peter on Jesus’ right side.

In the group of men to the left of the tax collector, art historians believe the figure with the darkest complexion represents Judas. He may have been painted darker than the others to connect him with his betrayal of Jesus in the gospels. Scholars also think that the figure two to the right of Judas is Masaccio himself represented as Thomas. However, it isn’t certain if the artist purposely included himself in the group of apostles surrounding Jesus in the painting’s central scene.

The story of the tribute money only occurs in Matthew’s Gospel, and its subject matter isn’t common in art history. Scholars have tried to figure out why Masaccio chose to depict this passage on the walls of the Brancacci chapel. Some think the scenes are a way of confirming the legitimacy of tax collection, and that this might be interpreted as a message the Florentine government wanted to send to the people.

At the time this fresco was completed, Florence was undergoing a controversial debate on tax reform. In 1427, government officials ended up instituting a tax register to improve the system of taxation in Florence. Masaccio may have been using a story from the Bible to support Florentine officials, the same people who would have financed his art.

I think this shows that taking a quick glance at the artwork found in cathedrals and historical churches isn’t enough. You could completely miss the sequence of events that are taking place in The Tribute Money if you didn’t take the time to study the painting. On top of that, some further thought reveals that the artwork in cathedrals can tell us about the history of the city and people of the time. This fresco probably wasn’t completed purely for religious reasons—it may have political undertones that reflect the city officials’ agenda. But by examining art with religious themes we can learn and better understand this history.

Image Source: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/art/mastrib.html

- Brooklyn Presta

Of all the pictures one might come across searching for the Temptation of Christ, one wouldn’t expect to stumble upon the American artist Kreg Yingst’s odd mixed media of it. This picture is from the series he did in 2000 called “Matt: A Visual Gospel” (www.kregyingst.com/), which depicts some significant scenes found throughout the anonymous gospel within the New Testament (supposedly written by a man named Matthew).

The story from the New Testament this mixed media was chosen from tells about Jesus being sent into the desert by God in order to be tempted by Satan (so that he may deny him and prove himself). After forty days of fasting, Satan tries to persuade Jesus three times to get him to break his bond with God by asking him to show his inherent power (by turning rocks to bread and by calling the angels to help him when he’s about to get injured) and at one point even tries to get Jesus to worship Satan in exchange for thegain of entire cities. When Satan realized he would not break Jesus’s bond with the heavenly Father, he high tailed it out of there leaving Jesus with angels that “waited on him”. The part of this story that is depicted by Yingst is when Satan presents what he could gain by worshipping him.

The 7” by 4” picture shows a very colorful gameshow scene with Satan as the colorful host and Jesus as the sort of bland current participant of the game. In this piece, Satan is trying to tempt the participant of the game (Jesus) with the fantastic prizes of whatever is behind the doors “riches”, “power”, and “desire”, giving Jesus a “green for go” and “red for no” buzzer. Even though the doors seem to be a background effect in the artwork, they actually pose the most significance when it comes to the meaning of the temptation piece as a whole.

The first door labeled “desire” is referring to the part of the temptation story where Satan tries to get Jesus to turn rocks into bread to show his true power (Yingst). The second door labeled “power” refers to the portion of the story in which Satan wants Jesus to show him his ability to control the angels by leaping off the building they’re on (Yingst). The final door labeled “riches” refers to the last temptation Satan tries to present Jesus by promising him kingdoms if Jesus bows down to him (Yingst). Even though the doors are colorful and the labels are tempting (like Satan’s “prizes” in the original gospel) in this portrait, Jesus is shown in the picture pushing the red buzzer and denying all three doors (like Jesus refused Satan all three times in the gospel), suggesting he’s not interested in the prizes he could get by participatng in Satan’s game. Not only is there a general theme of the gameshow, but there seems to be a lot more to this piece of art regarding the detail of the characters Satan and Jesus.

Satan stands out the most in this picture in contrast with Jesus and is portrayed by the American arist in almost a cliché way: a ruby-red man with the horns of possibly a goat or of some other animal. On the other hand, Jesus is represented in the picture as a bald man with a very bland blue suit and not in the cliché’ way he is often represented by American artists (young, dark brown hair, and a beard, wearing long, flowing white robes).

Even though the viewer of the painting knows of how this Satan character is shown as an evil being (from the Bible), Yingst decides to put a slight twist on Satan by showing him as friendly (making him seemingly more persuasive). Yingst does this by putting Satan in bright colorful clothing, with sunglasses, and a huge “go-getter” grin while Jesus is conservatively shown (he was also humble in the Biblical story). On top of the fact Satan looks friendly, he is shown as a gameshow host (and they are always portrayed in Amercican-based shows as extremely approachable). All of these qualities make Satan the perfect tempter, but not a good enough tempter to sway the Jesus participant to choose one of the prize doors or to sway Jesus from his alliance with God. The image source: http://www.members.cox.net/kianayingst/pages/007.Temptation_of_Christ.html

One Nation Under God

Jon McNaughton’s painting "One Nation Under God" shows Jesus together with many political figures of American history. Jesus is in the center of the painting, and he is also illuminated by the sun that forms a halo around his head. Wearing brightly colored robes, he clearly is the center of attention. In his right hand, Jesus holds the U.S. Constitution, which a little boy seems to be reading. Behind Jesus, many important American historical characters, especially politicians, are gathered, among them celebrities like George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and John F. Kennedy. In the front left corner of the image, a number of normal citizens are shown, facing Jesus and the U.S. Constitution. To Jesus’ left, business people, news reporters, and lawyers gather, looking away from Jesus. At the edge of the same group of people, there is a hooded figure that looks like an evil demon. Close to the lawyer, there are pieces of paper on the floor. In the background of the painting, there are the U.S. Supreme Court and the U.S. Capitol Building. Rising up in the early-morning sky is the American flag.


Jon McNaughton, an American artist from Utah, completed his painting "One Nation Under God" in 2009. He got the inspiration for the painting “right in the middle of the 2008 elections”, as McNaughton says himself in an interview found on his website. This means that the painting was created during a period of great political change. It can be expected that this change is reflected in the image, which renders it political, or might even make it an outspoken political statement by the artist himself.


In fact, McNaughton’s painting is very symbolic, as he reveals in the interview, so as to “cause people to study it and ponder its message”. While many artists publish statements about their works of art, they usually do not provide as much detail as McNaughton does for "One Nation Under God". Every person and every important object in the image has a roll-over description on the homepage. This reduces the possibilities for interpretation, making the painting even more of a statement.


Even without the artist’s comments, however, the basic ideas of the painting are clear. The prominent position of Jesus, proudly presenting the U.S. Constitution, shows that the document is inspired, or at least sanctioned, by God. Thus, the Capitol Building and the Supreme Court in the background are sanctioned, too. They, along with the crowd gathering behind Jesus, influenced the United States in a positive way. This becomes apparent because Jesus is standing in front of them, as the leader of the crowd. Jesus and all the people behind him look at the people in the bottom right corner of the painting. Some people in the front of the crowd, such as Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, and Abraham Lincoln, seem to give the people in the right corner accusing stares and gesture towards Jesus, as if they wanted to say that they should change and follow his lead. This interpretation is similar to what the artist himself says about his artwork.


That the people to Jesus’ left are indeed bad in one way or another is also symbolized by the hooded figure standing with them that is supposed to represent Satan, according to McNaughton. While the people behind Jesus all aided the United States in one way or another, those to Jesus’ left are on the wrong way and stop the country’s progress. They are, however, not in the process of turning to Jesus, but continue to look away from him. An interesting detail provided by the artist is the time shown by the lawyer’s clock. It is 11:59, which means that there is “little time remaining” to repent, do the right thing and turn toward Jesus.


Here one could find a parallel to the New Testament. When Jesus talks to his disciples about the coming of the kingdom of God, he also says that there will be those who will try to “lead many astray” (Mt 24:11), represented by the hooded figure in the painting. Moreover, since the bad people are to Jesus’ left, the painting might also have been inspired by Mt 25:33 where it says that the Son of Man, come to judge the people, will “put the sheep at his right hand and the goats at the left.” In fact, the artist himself says in the interview that the “strong Americans” are to Jesus’ right, whereas those who “have weakened the country” are to his left. Having those biblical scenes in mind and knowing that the painting is very symbolical, it is possible to arrive at its intended meaning even without the information the author provided.


The image is very political in that it shows specific individuals as good, namely those to Jesus’ right and those standing behind him, while portraying those to Jesus’ left as bad. Therefore, the painting generalizes over several groups of people. The politician is presented as minding his own business, talking in his cell phone. The lawyer counts his money although Jesus is in the center of the image, illuminated by the sun, which means that all the lawyer cares about is his money. Not even the reporter seems to care about Jesus. On the other hand, the hard-working farmer and doctor on the left side of the painting are completely preoccupied with Jesus. This allows for the interpretation that the artist wants to express his dissatisfaction with certain groups of people in the United States because he believes that they only care about themselves, but not about the well-being of the country.


To sum up, Jon McNaughton’s "One Nation Under God" is a painting that, although it includes Jesus as its central figure, is not about Jesus in the first place. Rather, it is a display of the state the artists perceives the United States to be in right now. Moreover, it is a political statement by McNaughton, expressing which groups of people he thinks aid America’s progress and which don’t. The fact that the homepage provides the viewer with very detailed comments on the elements of the painting supports this interpretation.

Yo Mama’s Last Supper

The "Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most iconic images of Jesus in the Western world. Da Vinci created the 15 x 29 ft. mural painting in the 15th century on behalf of his patron Duke Ludovico Sforza. Currently the painting hangs on a wall at Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The painting depicts the meal that Jesus shared with his disciples on the night of his betrayal and arrest. The disciples are portrayed as frightened and dismayed, suggesting that Jesus had just announced his impending arrest and execution.


Since this image has become almost universally known in the west, it has been used as a source for later artistic images of the Last Supper and even for advertising campaigns and parodies. The iconic nature of Da Vinci's painting allows images from pop culture to replace Jesus and the disciples to evoke comedic and offensive reactions (see 50 Last Supper Parodies)

In 2001, controversial artist Renee Cox again employed the image of Da Vinci's "Last Supper" to make statements concerning women, race, religion, and politics. Her series of photographs, entitled "Yo Mama's Last Supper," were installed in the Brooklyn Museum of Art as part of a 2001 exhibit on contemporary black photographers. The images replace Jesus with a self-portrait of a nude Renee Cox surrounded by eleven black disciples and a white Judas. The images ignited a controversy when New York City Mayor Rudolph Guiliani called the installation "disgusting," "outrageous" and "anti-Catholic." He subsequently called for a "decency panel" to review all works of art shown in any museum that received public funds (Elisabeth Bumiller, NY Times, Friday, February 16, 2001, see the archive at nytimes.com). Cox responded, "Get over it," and subsequently went skiing for the weekend. Later in an interview with Salon.com, she elaborated on her feelings about the reaction: "The thing is, here in America, it still is a very puritanical state of mind going on and when people of Giuliani's ilk see something that is nude, somehow they react that it's obscene. I say you should refer back to Greek antiquities. The Met is full of naked Greek statues and no one is upset about that." Cox continued that in addition to the statement the images make about women, it was also a critique of the Catholic Church and how it has treated women, Africans, and all minorities, noting the lack of traditional images of people of color in classic Christian scenarios.

Image Source: www.reneecox.net/series04/series04_1.htmlThe "Last Supper" by Leonardo da Vinci is one of the most iconic images of Jesus in the Western world. Da Vinci created the 15 x 29 ft. mural painting in the 15th century on behalf of his patron Duke Ludovico Sforza. Currently the painting hangs on a wall at Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The painting depicts the meal that Jesus shared with his disciples on the night of his betrayal and arrest. The disciples are portrayed as frightened and dismayed, suggesting that Jesus had just announced his impending arrest and execution.


Since this image has become almost universally known in the west, it has been used as a source for later artistic images of the Last Supper and even for advertising campaigns and parodies. The iconic nature of Da Vinci's painting allows images from pop culture to replace Jesus and the disciples to evoke comedic and offensive reactions (see 50 Last Supper Parodies)

In 2001, controversial artist Renee Cox again employed the image of Da Vinci's "Last Supper" to make statements concerning women, race, religion, and politics. Her series of photographs, entitled "Yo Mama's Last Supper," were installed in the Brooklyn Museum of Art as part of a 2001 exhibit on contemporary black photographers. The images replace Jesus with a self-portrait of a nude Renee Cox surrounded by eleven black disciples and a white Judas. The images ignited a controversy when New York City Mayor Rudolph Guiliani called the installation "disgusting," "outrageous" and "anti-Catholic." He subsequently called for a "decency panel" to review all works of art shown in any museum that received public funds (Elisabeth Bumiller, NY Times, Friday, February 16, 2001, see the archive at nytimes.com). Cox responded, "Get over it," and subsequently went skiing for the weekend. Later in an interview with Salon.com, she elaborated on her feelings about the reaction: "The thing is, here in America, it still is a very puritanical state of mind going on and when people of Giuliani's ilk see something that is nude, somehow they react that it's obscene. I say you should refer back to Greek antiquities. The Met is full of naked Greek statues and no one is upset about that." Cox continued that in addition to the statement the images make about women, it was also a critique of the Catholic Church and how it has treated women, Africans, and all minorities, noting the lack of traditional images of people of color in classic Christian scenarios.

Image Source: www.reneecox.net/series04/series04_1.html

Alexamenos graffito

The Alexamenos graffito (also called the graffito blasfemo) was first discovered in 1857 inscribed on a plaster wall in a building called the domus Gelotiana in the Palatine Hill district of ancient Rome. The building once served as part of the imperial palace of the emperor Caligula and became a boarding school for boy servants after his death. The building then became part of the support walls for structures built above it and remained sealed until its excavation in the nineteenth century.

The graffito itself depicts a donkey-headed human form on the right being crucified with a human worshiper to the left. An inscription accompanies the images which reads alexamenos sebete theon, or “Alexamenos worship (or worships) God.” Disregarding the problematic Greek verbal form (as written an imperative, but many scholars believe that is a mistake made by an inscriber unfamiliar with the intricacies of the Greek verbal system), the name suggests that the human form is that of an otherwise unknown ancient worshiper named Alexamenos.

Images from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexamenos_graffito

What makes this graffito particularly important is that it is the earliest known representation of the Crucifixion of Jesus. Scholars debate when the crucifixion of Jesus became central to early Christian veneration, most suggest that it was not until after the fourth century. The date of this image could be anywhere between the late first century and the late third, with most scholars who studied the image leaning toward a later date. With either date, the image also provides some evidence of the kind of discrimination faced by early Christians within their Roman context before the abolition of such practices in the early fourth century by the emperor Constantine.

Among the many accusations leveled at Christians during this period of persecution was the connection of Christianity and Judaism with the practice of “onolatry” (or donkey-worship). Descriptions of these accusations are discussed by the early Christian heresiologist Tertullian in the late second century. He mentions that these groups were accused of worshipping a god that had the head of a donkey, he even mentions a story of a Jew who had converted to Christianity being forced to walk around the north African city of Carthage carrying the image of a man with a donkey’s ears and hooves with the label “the God of the Christians born of an ass.”

Tertullain, Ad nations, 1:11
In the next accusation we are found guilty not just of abandoning our communal faith, but of adding on a monstrosity of superstition. Some of you have entertained the dream that our god is actually the head of an ass. Cornelius Tacitus first launched this fantasy in the fourth book of his Histories where he recounts the Jewish war. Starting with the origins of the Jewish people, he traces the source of their religion and its name. He relates how the Jewish people, hard-pressed for water and wondering abroad in desolate places, were delivered by following the lead of a herd of wild asses thought to be in search of water after feeding. For this reason the likeness of this animal is worshiped by the Jew. This is why I believe that we Christians, being linked to the Jewish religion, are associated with the same image...Perhaps this is your charge against us that in the midst of all these indiscriminate animal lovers, we save our devotion for asses alone!

Tertullain, Ad nations, 1:14
There is now a new rumor about our God going the rounds. Recently a most depraved individual from Rome, your city, had defected from his own faith and allowed his skin to be shredded by wild beasts. Every day he would hire himself out for viewing while his skin was stripped. He would carry around a picture directed against us with the heading "Onocoetes," meaning Donkey Priest. It was a picture of a man wearing a toga and the ears of the donkey with a book in hand and one leg ending in a hoof. And the crowd believed this Jewish man. Who else plants the seed of our infamous reputation? As a result the whole city is talking about the Donkey Priest. Since this rumor has been around since yesterday, it lacks any authority of time and is compromised by the character of its author.

The image of the Alexamenos graffito raises important questions of religious tolerance, the representation of Jesus within early anti-Christian art, and the response of worshipers to derogatory implications.

New Testament in Art – Some guidelines for excellent presentations

1. Find a relevant, interesting artistic work. Use the websites to look for an image of a story or idea from the New Testament that strikes you as interesting and thought provoking. Multicultural or irreverent images often bring up the best conversations in class.
2. Study the image and context of its production. The following set of questions will help you better analyze the significance of the portrayal of the story:
a. What is your first response to the image? What do you notice as striking or unusual?
b. When and where was the image produced? Are these circumstances reflected in the work?
c. What do we know about the artist? Why did the artist produce the work? Devotion? Instruction? Controversy?
d. What is central to the work? What is peripheral? Is this significant?
e. What biblical text provided the inspiration for the work? Is it a simple retelling of the text? In what ways does it seem to interpret the text?
f. What theological issues does the work address? Does it provoke new conceptions of that issue? Is there a cultural perspective being invoked in the work?
3. Write your 2-3 page analysis of the work. This should include a description of key features of the work, a brief contextualization of the artist and time period, and your analysis of its significance.
4. Prepare to present the image and lead your discussion.
5. Some guidelines for great conversations:
a. Be prepared to ask three thought out questions
b. Aim for great discussion, not just responses to questions
c. Allow for silence – it often means students are contemplating the question
d. Get multiple responses – allow students to respond to each other
e. Move from an observation question (noticing elements of the work) to evaluation and analysis (the important messages of the work)
f. The I.C.E. method is a good place to start:
I – Information and observation questions
C – Connections to text, theology, experience
E – Evaluation of larger implications of the work and analysis of its viability in light of what you know from experience or class.

The Assignment

Each student will write a 2-3 page paper on an ancient or modern artistic rendition of an aspect of the New Testament. The NT has been one of the driving forces in western and global art with many representations of stories and concepts. The student will then present their work to the class and lead a discussion about the messages the artwork is trying to send and themes that it might be challenging.